1.	Drugs, such as antibiotics, are often first discovered in the natural environment.
	Explain why it may become increasingly difficult to discover new drugs in the future.
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[Total 2 marks]

2.	Fig. 1 below shows a photograph of a part of a heathland habitat. A study was carried out on the biodiversity of this habitat.
		
		Fig. 1

(a)	Define the terms:
habitat .............................................................................................................
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biodiversity ......................................................................................................
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[3]
 
(b)	In this study, a student placed his quadrat on areas he considered to have the most biodiversity.
	Explain what is wrong with this technique.
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[2]

(c)	The student looked at the abundance of three plants at different distances from the bottom of the slope.
	The results table drawn by the student is shown below.

distance from	percentage cover of each plant species	
bottom of slope	cotton grass	ling	bracken	
0 m	76	0	0	
10 m	68	0	0	
20 m	0	2	0	
30 m	0	35	0	
40 m	0	50	0	
50 m	0	60	7	
60 m	0	40	17	
70 m	0	10	42	
80 m	0	0	68	
90 m	0	0	71	
100 m	0	0	74	
 
(i)	The format of the student’s table is incorrect.
	Suggest one way in which the student could correct the table.
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[1]

	Fig. 2 is a graph showing the distribution of cotton grass and bracken at different distances from the bottom of the slope.

		Fig. 2
 
(ii)	Using the information given in the table above, sketch on Fig. 2 a curve to show the distribution of ling.
[3]
 
(iii)	Describe the distribution of bracken.
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[2]

(d)	(i)	The student was asked to calculate the biodiversity using Simpson’s Index of Diversity.
	Suggest what additional data he would need to collect in order to calculate Simpson’s Index of Diversity in this habitat.
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[2]
 
(ii)	The student calculated Simpson’s Index as 0.2. This is a low value.
	State the significance of this low value for this habitat.
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[1]
[Total 14 marks]

3.	In India, the population of the white-backed vulture, Gyps bengalensis, has fallen by 97% to an estimated vultures. This vulture is now considered to be ‘critically endangered’. Reasons for the decline in numbers include:
•	vultures feed on carcasses including those from farm animals.
• 	hese farm animals may have been treated with a pain killer. This particular pain killer causes kidney failure in the vultures.
•	the use of this pain killer is being phased out. However, many farmers continue to use up their stocks of the drug.
•	this pain killer is not easily biodegradable and will remain in the environment for many years.
	In an effort to save the white-backed vulture, a captive breeding programme has been set up.
	Three centres in India have been built, each housing up to 40 individuals. These vultures have been collected from different areas of the Indian subcontinent.
 
	Outline three reasons why the conservation of the white-backed vulture is important.
1 ...............................................................................................................................
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2 ...............................................................................................................................
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3 ...............................................................................................................................
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[Total 3 marks]

4.	In India, the population of the white-backed vulture, Gyps bengalensis, has fallen by 97% to an estimated vultures. This vulture is now considered to be ‘critically endangered’. Reasons for the decline in numbers include:
•	vultures feed on carcasses including those from farm animals.
•	hese farm animals may have been treated with a pain killer. This particular pain killer causes kidney failure in the vultures.
•	the use of this pain killer is being phased out. However, many farmers continue to use up their stocks of the drug.
•	this pain killer is not easily biodegradable and will remain in the environment for many years.
 
	In an effort to save the white-backed vulture, a captive breeding programme has been set up.
	Three centres in India have been built, each housing up to 40 individuals. These vultures have been collected from different areas of the Indian subcontinent.
	Suggest three measures that could be taken in the long term to preserve the numbers of white-backed vultures, once the captive bred individuals have been released into the wild.
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[Total 3 marks]

5.	A group of students carried out some fieldwork to investigate the diversity of insects in three habitats:
•	a field of barley
•	a field of wheat
•	the vegetation under a hedge.
	Their results are shown in the table below. The table also shows how they used their data to calculate Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D) for each habitat.
	D = 1 – (Σ(n/N)2)
	where N = the total number of insects found, and n is the number of individuals of a particular species.
number of individuals of each species
in each habitat	
species	barley
field	wheat
field	under
hedge	
a	32	4	0	
b	78	0	1	
c	0	126	2	
d	0	5	12	
e	0	0	8	
f	0	0	9	
g	0	25	3	
h	0	10	3	
i	0	0	2	
j	0	0	5	
k	86	56	0	
l	0	0	7	
species richness	3	6	10	
total number of
insects (N)	196	226	52	
Simpson’s Index
of Diversity (D)		0.61	0.86	

(a)	State what is meant by the term species richness.
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[1]
 
(b)	(i)	Calculate the value for Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D) for the barley field.
	Show your working and write your answer in the shaded box in the table.
[2]
 
(ii)	Using the data in the table, suggest why the value of Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D) for the vegetation under the hedge is so much higher than that for the wheat field.
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[3]

(c)	Describe how the students may have determined the numbers of individuals of each species in each habitat.
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[5]
[Total 11 marks]

6.	In this question, one mark is available for the quality of the use and organisation of scientific terms.
	The caterpillar of the Large Elephant Hawk Moth feeds on willowherb. Describe in detail how you could investigate the distribution and abundance of willowherb in a nature reserve.
[7]
Quality of Written Communication [1]
[Total 8 marks]

7.	Hedgerows are important in farming as they act as sites of refuge for beneficial insects, provide protection for the crop from adverse weather conditions and act as wildlife corridors.
	Farmers are advised to leave strips of land between hedgerows and the crops in the fields to encourage biodiversity.
	Describe how you would investigate whether leaving strips of land around fields encourages plant biodiversity.
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[Total 5 marks]

8.	When hedgerows are destroyed there is a loss of biodiversity.
	Suggest why this loss of biodiversity is of concern.
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[Total: 3 marks]

9.	(a)	In this question, one mark is available for the quality of spelling, punctuation and grammar.
	Britain’s only native species of carp, the crucian carp, is very hardy and can live in conditions that would be fatal for most freshwater fish. It can survive in water temperatures from 1 °C to 38 °C and can live in water with a very low oxygen concentration and a low pH.
	The crucian carp can interbreed with two other species of carp:
•	common carp, a non-native species which was introduced into Britain to increase the stock of fish for freshwater fishing;
•	goldfish, which are often illegally released into the wild.

	Explain the importance of maintaining a population of crucian carp that has not interbred with other species.
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[8]
Quality of Written Communication [1]
(b)	Interbreeding between the three species of fish can be detected by genetic fingerprinting.
	A repetitive sequence of DNA has been found in all three species. This sequence has been isolated by using a restriction enzyme. The length of the sequence differs in the three species:
•	goldfish	- 100 base pairs
•	common carp	- 75 base pairs
•	crucian carp	- 65 base pairs.

(i)	Explain briefly what is meant by a restriction enzyme.
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[3]
 
(ii)	The figure below shows an electrophoresis gel on which bands of DNA produced by genetic fingerprinting have been revealed by staining. Only the bands produced from goldfish, common carp and hybrid
goldfish × crucian carp are shown.

	Draw onto the figure the bands expected from:
•	crucian carp;
•	hybrid goldfish × common carp;
•	hybrid common carp × crucian carp.
[3]
[Total 15 marks]

10.	Grasslands which have been left undisturbed for several years often have ant mounds. Ants make burrows in the soil and bring fine crumbs of soil to the surface, where it accumulates as a mound. Each mound is about 50 cm across and about 20 cm high.
	Plants grow on the mounds. Ants of the type that make mounds in grassland do not feed on plants.
	A student noticed that a plant called wild thyme, Thymus drucei, seemed to be more common on ant mounds than it was on other parts of the same grassland, not occupied by ants.
	In order to test the hypothesis that wild thyme was indeed more common on ant mounds, the student examined all the mounds in an area of grassland about 100 m by 100 m, noting whether or not wild thyme was present.
	After surveying all 47 ant mounds in the grassland, the student threw a bunch of keys, 47 times, to obtain random points on the grassland, equal in number to the ant mounds.
 
	Each time the keys were thrown, the point where they landed was used to place a 1 m2 quadrat frame. The presence or absence of wild thyme in the quadrat was noted.
	The data obtained are shown in the table below.
number of ant mounds or quadrats with:	
at least one wild thyme
plant present	no wild thyme
plants present	
ant mound	36	11	
1 m2 quadrat	24	23	
 
(i)	What evidence is there in the table to support the hypothesis that wild thyme is more common on ant mounds?
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[1]

(ii)	Describe two ways in which the survey methods could have been improved. Give a reason for each of the changes you have suggested.
1 ......................................................................................................................
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[4]
[Total 5 marks]

11.	The Millennium Seed Bank Project is an international plant conservation project. Its aim is to prevent the extinction of about 24 000 plant species.
	Suggest two benefits of preventing extinction of plant species.
1 ...............................................................................................................................
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2 ...............................................................................................................................
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[Total 2 marks]

12.	Over half of the species of plants and animals comprising the biodiversity of the Earth are thought to exist in tropical rain forests.
	What are the economic and ethical reasons for maintaining biodiversity?
economic reasons
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ethical reasons
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[Total 5 marks]

13.	Preserving the diversity of life on Earth has come to be an accepted goal for many people.
	However, this goal can sometimes come into conflict with other goals, such as economic development.
	In 1980, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) proposed a statement to form the basis for conserving biodiversity. One of the points included in the statement is:
	“All species have an inherent right to exist. The ecological processes that support the integrity of the biosphere and its diverse species and habitats are to be maintained.”
	Within the UK, many initiatives have been set up to help maintain biodiversity. One is the Dartmoor Biodiversity Project, part of which is the Habitat Action Plan for moorland, which covers almost 50% of the National Park.
	This Action Plan specifies many objectives, all of which aim to maintain the range of habitats on Dartmoor and ensure that all native plants and animals continue to breed successfully and maintain healthy populations.
 
(a)	State what is meant by the term biodiversity.
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[2]
 
(b)	In this question, one mark is available for the quality of spelling, punctuation and grammar.
	Outline the ecological, economic and ethical reasons behind initiatives such as the Dartmoor Biodiversity Project and other similar projects around the world.
(Allow one line page)
[8]
Quality of Written Communication [1]

(c)	State four activities of conservation organisations, such as the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, which contribute to the maintenance of biodiversity.
1 ......................................................................................................................
2 ......................................................................................................................
3 ......................................................................................................................
4 ......................................................................................................................
[4]
[Total 15 marks]

14.	The figure below represents the transfer of energy through a woodland ecosystem.

(a)	Of the 800 000 kJ of energy which reaches the producers, only 10 000 kJ of energy is converted to growth in the producers.
(i)	Calculate the percentage of the energy reaching the producers that is converted to growth in the producers. Show your working.

Answer = .................................. %
[2]
 
(ii)	Explain what happens to the energy reaching the producers that is not converted to growth.
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[2]
 
(iii)	Name one decomposer.
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[1]
 
(iv)	State two ways in which energy is transferred from primary consumers to decomposers at C.
1 .............................................................................................................
2 .............................................................................................................
[2]
 
(b)	Suggest why the percentage energy transfer between producers and primary consumers at A is less than that between the primary consumers and secondary consumers at B.
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[3]
[Total 10 marks]

15.	(a)	Explain the meaning of the term primary succession.
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[2]

	The figure below shows a primary succession in a temperate climate.
	X represents an example of deflected succession.

(b)	Explain the role of pioneer plants in succession on a bare rock or sand dune.
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[3]
 
(c)	Suggest two ways in which deflected succession at X could be caused.
1 ......................................................................................................................
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[2]

(d)	Explain how biomass changes during a primary succession.
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[2]
[Total 9 marks]

16.	Complete the following passage by inserting the most suitable terms in the blank spaces.
	Living organisms are interacting constantly with each other and with the environment.
	Each individual organism is a member of a group, the ........................................ ,
	which consists of all the individuals of a species in an area. This area is known as the
	........................................ . All the organisms of the different species in an area form a group
	called the ........................................ . All the species and the non-living components
	interacting within an environment are collectively known as the ........................................ .
	Photosynthetic organisms such as green plants form the first feeding or
	........................................ level in the food chain and are known as ........................................
	because they can manufacture their own food. Animals are dependent upon the
	photosynthetic organisms to obtain energy and are known as ........................................ .
[Total 7 marks]

17.	Explain how the fungal decomposition of deadwood is of benefit to the living trees within a woodland.
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[Total 4 marks]

18.	Some drinking water is extracted from the ground. Groundwater is tested for a range of substances including nitrate ions.
	Explain why the presence of nitrate ions in ground water is a cause for concern.
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[Total 4 marks]

19.	All organisms can be classified according to where they get their energy and the element carbon. The table below shows the four forms of nutrition (photoautotrophic, photoheterotrophic, chemoautotrophic, chemoheterotrophic) that are possible. A number of different bacteria (kingdom Prokaryotes) are shown in the table to identify their forms of nutrition.
CARBON SOURCE	
carbon dioxide
(autotrophic)	organic carbon
(heterotrophic)	
ENERGY	light
(phototrophic)	photoautotrophic
................................
cyanobacteria	photoheterotrophic

purple non-sulphur
bacteria	
SOURCE	chemical reactions (chemotrophic)	chemoautotrophic
nitrifying bacteria
	chemoheterotrophic
................................
saprophytic bacteria	
(a)	Complete the table with the names of two other kingdoms. Write your answers on the dotted lines in the shaded boxes.
[2]
 
(b)	Explain why organisms need to obtain energy and carbon.
energy .............................................................................................................
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carbon .............................................................................................................
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[4]

(c)	Nitrifying bacteria are chemoautotrophs. Some nitrifying bacteria gain energy from converting nitrite ions (NO2–) to nitrate ions (NO3–).
	Explain how the activity of these bacteria affects the growth of plants in an ecosystem.
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[2]

	Bacteria are metabolically very diverse and show all four forms of nutrition identified in the table above. This diversity can be shown in a simple piece of apparatus called a Winogradsky column.
	A glass tube, 30 cm tall and 5 cm in diameter, is set up with the lower third containing river mud, some shredded newspaper as a source of cellulose, and the minerals sodium sulphate and calcium carbonate. The top two-thirds of the column is filled with river water and the tube is sealed and placed under a bright light source. After three months different types of bacteria establish themselves in zones.
	Fig. 1 shows some chemical changes occurring in a Winogradsky column containing six types of bacteria.

© Jim Deacon
	Fig. 1

	Fig. 2 gives more details of the metabolic activities of the six types of bacteria.

	Fig. 2
(d)	Use the information given in Figs. 1 and 2, and in the table to identify the forms of nutrition of
(i)	Clostridium and Desulfovibrio ................................................................
[1]
(ii)	green sulphur bacteria ...........................................................................
[1]

(e)	(i)	Name the element that is being recycled in Fig. 2.
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[1]
(ii)	Use Fig. 1 to describe how two named types of bacteria recycle sulphur in the Winogradsky column.
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[2]
 
(f)	Unusual communities of animals are found deep in the ocean in warm, sulphur-rich water.
	Use the information given in Figs. 1 and 2 to suggest which type of bacteria is the producer at the base of food chains in these communities.
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[1]
 
(g)	Gas gangrene is a condition caused by the bacterium Clostridium perfringens.
	Suggest why gas gangrene only occurs in severely damaged tissue where blood supply is restricted.
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[2]
[Total: 16 marks]

20.	(a)	Plants rely on the cycling of nitrogen to supply them with nitrogen in a form that they can absorb.
	Select, from the list, the most suitable word or term that matches the statements (i) to (iv) below.
active transport	nitrogen fixation
denitrification	Nitrobacter
denitrifying bacterium	Nitrosomonas
diffusion	osmosis
endocytosis	Rhizobium
nitrification
 
(i)	The conversion of nitrate ions into nitrogen gas.
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[1]
(ii)	A bacterium that fixes nitrogen.
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[1]
 
(iii)	A method by which nitrate ions pass into root hair cells.
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[1]
(iv)	The conversion of ammonium ions into nitrite ions.
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[1]

(b)	Before the widespread use of artificial fertilisers, farmers used a variety of methods to improve the fertility of the soil and so improve the yield of their crops. Two of the methods in common use were:
•	Ploughing-in
In which legumes, such as beans, alfalfa or clover, were grown in a field and then harvested. The roots were then ploughed back into the soil rather than being dug up or burnt.
•	Crop rotation
In which different crops were grown in a field in each year for three years. In the fourth year, the ‘fallow’ year, the field was not used for crops. In the following year the crop cycle was started again.
 
	Explain how ploughing-in and crop rotation are able to improve the fertility of the soil.
Ploughing-in ....................................................................................................
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Crop rotation ...................................................................................................
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[4]
[Total 8 marks]

21.	Primary succession is the simplest type of succession, beginning with a bare surface such as rock or sand. The first organisms to colonise the area form the pioneer community.
	Describe two effects of the pioneer community on the habitat.
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[Total 2 marks]

22.	Chalk grassland communities are found in areas of southern England such as the South Downs. Woodland rather than grassland is the climax community for this habitat. Grazing by sheep and rabbits maintains the grassland.
(i)	Define the term climax community.
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[1]
 
(ii)	Suggest how grazing by sheep and rabbits could prevent a woodland climax community from developing.
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[1]
[Total 2 marks]

23.	A common plant found in chalk grassland communities is bird’s foot trefoil. A group of students used a point quadrat to determine the percentage cover of bird’s foot trefoil in an area of chalk grassland. They placed the point quadrat at one position on the grassland and lowered the metal pins, as shown in the figure below. They recorded the first hit on each species made with each pin. This was repeated at nine other randomly selected locations within the area of grassland. Their results are shown in the following table.

quadrat number	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	
number of hits on bird’s foot trefoil	3	8	7	8	9	3	2	1	2	1	
number of hits on other species	16	21	20	13	16	21	24	16	20	28	
	An estimate of percentage cover for a species can be made by calculating the number of hits as a percentage of the total hits.
(a)	Using the results in the table above, calculate the percentage cover for bird’s foot trefoil. Show your working and express your answer to the nearest 0.1%.

Answer = ........................................%
[2]

(b)	A footpath runs through the area of grassland and one student observed that very few bird’s foot trefoil plants were found on the trampled areas.
	Explain how the students could use a transect to determine whether there is a link between trampling and the abundance of bird’s foot trefoil on this footpath.
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[5]
[Total 7 marks]

24.	A study was carried out in south-east Scotland on the release of nitrous oxide (N2O) from agricultural land. Nitrous oxide is produced by the action of bacteria in the soil.
	In the study, six plots of grassland, A to F, were treated in different ways. Plots B to F were treated with substances containing nitrogen. The quantities applied to each plot contained the same mass of nitrogen, although in different compounds. The table below shows the results obtained for the various treatments.
plot	treatment	N2O produced /
kg ha–1	
A	nothing added	        57	
B	inorganic fertiliser	      531	
C	urea	     190	
D	sewage sludge	13 537	
E	cattle manure	     319	
F	poultry manure	  6 612	
	Describe three variables in this experiment that the researchers would have taken into account to ensure that the results were valid.
1 ...............................................................................................................................
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2 ...............................................................................................................................
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3 ...............................................................................................................................
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[Total 3 marks]

25.	Coral reefs occupy 0.2% of the world’s oceans but provide habitat and breeding grounds for 25% of the world’s fish species. The figure below shows a food web for a coral reef community.

	Reefs are under threat from a variety of sources. One of these is the water that drains from agricultural land that is rich in fertilisers. Another is the discharge of untreated sewage into the sea.
 
	Explain how these forms of pollution could alter the ecological balance of a coral reef.
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[Total 4 marks]

26.	The diagram below shows part of the nitrogen cycle.

(a)	Using only the information in the diagram, state one example of each of the following:
(i)	secondary consumer;
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[1]
(ii)	producer.
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[1]

(b)	(i)	Name the process W.
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[1]
(ii)	State a way in which nitrogen in air can be converted directly into nitrate ions, as indicated by arrow X.
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[1]
(iii)	State the type of bacteria that carry out process Y.
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[1]
 
(iv)	The bacterium Rhizobium also has a role in the cycle shown in the diagram.
	Explain the importance of Rhizobium in the nitrogen cycle.
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[2]
[Total 7 marks]

27.	(a)	State what ecologists mean by the following terms:
(i)	habitat
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[1]
(ii)	niche
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[1]
(iii)	ecosystem.
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[1]
 
(b)	Two more terms commonly used by ecologists are population and community.
	State the difference between a population and a community.
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[1]
[Total 4 marks]

28.	Fig. 1 shows the transfer of energy through a food chain in a wood.
	The figures represent the energy in the levels of the ecosystem in MJ m–2 y–1.

Fig. 1
 
	Fig. 2 shows what happens to the food available to caterpillars in the food chain shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 2
 
(i)	Fig. 1 shows that each trophic level has less energy flowing through it than the previous trophic level.
	Use the information in Fig. 2 to explain why this is the case.
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[3]
 
(ii)	Explain the differences in the percentage of energy transferred between the trophic levels shown in Fig. 1.
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[2]
[Total 5 marks]

29.	The figure below shows some of the stages that have occurred during succession at Glacier Bay in Alaska.

	Using the information in the figure,
(i)	explain what is meant by the term succession ;
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[4]

(ii)	outline two changes which occur between mid and late succession;
1 ......................................................................................................................
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2 ......................................................................................................................
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[2]
 
(iii)	suggest one biotic and one abiotic change which are not indicated in the figure.
biotic ................................................................................................................
abiotic ..............................................................................................................
[2]
[Total 8 marks]

30.	Statements about the nitrogen cycle are written below.

	Select from the following terms the appropriate letter to match each statement. Write the letter in the box.
	The first one has been done for you.

[Total 4 marks]

31.	The figure below illustrates the profile of a sand dune system, together with kite diagrams of some plant species. This summarises the results of a belt transect carried out over the dunes.

	The results of the transect were initially recorded using the ACFOR scale:
A – abundant
C – common
F – frequent
O – occasional
R – rare
(a)	Outline the advantages and disadvantages of using a scale, such as the ACFOR scale.
advantages .....................................................................................................
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disadvantages .................................................................................................
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[3]
 
(b)	Explain
(i)	how such a transect would have been carried out;
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[4]

(ii)	how the ACFOR readings would have been converted to kite diagrams. You may use the space below for any diagrams to help your answer.
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[3]
 
(c)	The distribution of plant species in sand dunes will be influenced by a number of abiotic factors, such as temperature.
	Explain how to measure, in different parts of the sand dune system, variations in temperature of the sand or soil.
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[2]

(d)	Sand dune systems are a result of the process of succession. The semi-fixed dunes represent an intermediate sere between yellow and fixed dunes.
	Explain
(i)	what is meant by a sere;
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[1]
 
(ii)	the process of succession in a system of sand dunes, or in an area you have studied.
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[4]
[Total 17 marks]

32.	In this question, one mark is available for the quality of spelling, punctuation and grammar.
	The diagram below represents the energy flow through an ecosystem.

	Explain how energy is transferred through food chains and food webs in an ecosystem.
You should refer to the efficiency of this transfer in your answer.
You will gain credit if you make use of the information in the diagram.
[9]
Quality of Written Communication [1]
[Total 10 marks]

33.	David Bellamy, the president of Plantlife, describes peat bogs as ‘the jewel of Britain’s habitats’.
	‘You walk with a spring in your step – the peat underfoot is nine-tenths water – to the tireless song of a hovering skylark, on an undulating carpet of green, shot through with red, pink, burnished gold and orange, yellow and white flowers that thrive here. There are hundreds of insect species in the pools and on the plants and an abundance of round-leaved sundew, one of several carnivorous plants that get their nutrients (especially nitrogen compounds) from the insects they trap in their sticky leaves.’
Explain:
(i)	why very wet soils are usually nitrogen-deficient and how the sundew is at a competitive advantage in such soils;
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[4]
 
(ii)	why, in addition to nitrogen-deficiency, many plants cannot grow successfully in very wet soils.
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[3]
[Total 7 marks]

34.	A group of students carried out an investigation into the growth of the Scotch Thistle, Onopordum acanthium, in two different sites, A and B.
	At each site, 15 plants were selected and their heights measured and recorded. These are summarised in the table below.
height of plants / mm	
site A	site B	
462
484
396
421
437
365
409
427
439
416
387
488
463
472
399	267
295
254
147
116
189
274
196
322
168
244
267
298
321
227	
mean	 431	239	
standard
deviation (s.d.)    37	
63	
 
(a)	Describe how the students would have ensured that they measured a representative sample of thistles.
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[4]

(b)	Explain what is meant in the table above by:
(i)	mean;
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[2]
 
(ii)	standard deviation.
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[2]
 
(c)	The figure for s.d. at site B is greater than the figure for site A. Explain what this means.
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[1]
 
(d)	In order to draw a statistically valid conclusion from their results, the students carried out a t-test.
	Before calculating a t value, they had to state a Null Hypothesis.
(i)	State what the Null Hypothesis would be in this investigation.
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[2]

	The calculation gave a value for t of 9.64.
	The table below shows critical t values at different levels of significance and degrees of freedom.
	The number of degrees of freedom for a t-test is two less than the total number of samples.
level of significance (p)	
0.10	0.05	0.01	0.001	
	14	1.76	2.15	2.98	4.14	
	16	1.75	2.12	2.92	4.02	
	18	1.73	2.10	2.88	3.92	
Degrees	20	1.73	2.09	2.85	3.85	
of	22	1.72	2.07	2.82	3.79	
freedom	24	1.71	2.06	2.80	3.75	
	26	1.71	2.06	2.78	3.71	
	28	1.70	2.05	2.76	3.67	
	30	1.70	2.04	2.75	3.65	
 
(ii)	Using the table, state the conclusion that would be drawn from the calculation of a t value of 9.64 and explain how you reached this conclusion.
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[4]
[Total 15 marks]

35.	The table below compares the mean protein yields of two cereal crops, with that of two legume crops.
crop	mean protein yield
/ kg ha–1	
cereal	maize	146	
	sorghum	91	
legume	soybean	509	
	groundnut (peanut)	227	
	Explain how soybean and groundnut produce a significantly higher mean protein yield than either maize or sorghum.
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[Total 4 marks]

36.	Vancouver Island, off the west coast of Canada, was covered by cool temperate rain forest until timber extraction began about one hundred years ago. A large area of this climatic climax community has been cut or burned, though much remains.
	When timber is extracted from an area of forest, all trees, including those not required for timber, are usually cut down. The land is then left so that seeds of tree species can germinate and new forest can develop. It takes many decades for a complete canopy of mature trees to develop in an area which has been treated in this way.
	Small soil animals of two arthropod orders – mites and springtails – were studied in several areas of forest on Vancouver Island. Each of the areas was similar in slope and soil type.
	The study areas had different stages of tree growth. In each area, mites and springtails were extracted from soil samples and counted. The species of springtail in each sample were identified. The species of mite were not identified.

	Some of the data from the investigation are shown in the table below.
numbers per 100 g of soil	
stage of tree growth	mean number of
individuals of all types of mite	mean number of individuals of all types of springtail	mean number of species of springtail	
tree seedlings 	1375	125	9	
young trees	2564	300	13	
mature trees	1981	312	11	
climax forest, not cut or
burned since records began	2890	715	16	
 
	State three conclusions that you can draw from the data in the table.
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[Total 3 marks]

37.	Nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria are involved in the nitrogen cycle. 
Explain the role in the nitrogen cycle of
(i)	nitrifying bacteria;
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(ii)	denitrifying bacteria.
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[Total 4 marks]

38.	Read the following passage carefully, then answer the questions below.
	Rhizobium is a bacterium that is closely associated with the roots of certain
plants known as legumes. These plants produce chemicals to attract the
bacteria and extra root hairs are produced. The bacteria attach to the surface
of the root hairs. Chemical links are formed between a complex
5	polysaccharide on the bacterial surface and lectin, a protein, formed by the
plants. The bacteria penetrate the cell walls of the root hairs and enter the
cells. The presence of the bacteria stimulates the cells of the root to divide,
forming swellings known as nodules.
	The bacteria produce an enzyme, nitrogenase, that is the catalyst for the
10	conversion of nitrogen gas to ammonia. The bacteria use carbon compounds
manufactured by the plant to respire, making energy available for this
conversion. The ammonia is then used to form amino acids. Nitrogenase only
functions in low oxygen concentrations. The root cells produce a pigment,
leghaemoglobin, that is very similar to haemoglobin. Leghaemoglobin absorbs
15	oxygen, leaving low concentrations in the nodules.

(i)	Rhizobium is a prokaryotic organism.
	State one characteristic that is typical of prokaryotes, but not of eukaryotes.
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[1]
 
(ii)	Lectin (line 5) and polysaccharides are compounds that are formed from small molecules joined together by chemical bonds.
	Explain how the small molecules are joined together to form these compounds.
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[3]
 
(iii)	Leghaemoglobin contains the same metal element as haemoglobin.
	Name this metal element.
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[1]
 
(iv)	State the names of two proteins, other than lectin, mentioned in the passage.
1 ......................................................................................................................
2 ......................................................................................................................
[2]
 
(v)	Name the process that occurs in Rhizobium to convert nitrogen gas into ammonia.
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[1]

(vi)	It has been suggested that oxygen is an inhibitor of nitrogenase.
	Explain one way in which oxygen could act as an inhibitor.
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[2]
[Total 10 marks]

39.	State the word or phrase that best describes an organism that obtains its food by eating only producers.
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[Total 1 mark]

40.	Using timber production in a temperate country as an example, explain how ecosystems can be managed in a sustainable way.
	In your answer, you should make clear how the management is sustainable.
[Total 7 marks]

41.	In woodlands that are managed, a conflict exists between the economic yield and the maintenance of biodiversity.
	Below is a photograph of an area of coppice and standard woodland.

(i)	Describe the process of coppicing and explain how it is used in the sustainable management of a woodland.
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[3]

(ii)	State two ways in which managing woodland as a mix of standard and coppiced trees can be of economic benefit to the owner.
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[2]
[Total 5 marks]

42.	The information below refers to the deficiency of the enzyme, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) in humans:
•	a deficiency of G6PD is an inherited condition
•	G6PD is necessary for the production of ribose
•	ribose is a nutrient needed by Plasmodium falciparum
•	individuals with G6PD deficiency may be resistant to the parasite P. falciparum
•	G6PD deficiency is more common in areas where malaria occurs regularly.
	In an experiment, red blood cells were collected from individuals deficient in G6PD and from individuals without this deficiency. The cells were collected in a solution containing an anticoagulant, as well as solutes used to maintain a suitable water potential. The red blood cells were used as a growth medium for P. falciparum.

	The percentage of red blood cells infected by P. falciparum was determined over a five day period and the mean calculated. The results obtained are shown in the figure below.

© E F Roth et al.
 
	Using the information in the figure above,
(i)	suggest why error bars have been included;
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[2]

(ii)	describe and explain the results obtained between day 1 and day 2;
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[2]
 
(iii)	describe and explain the differences between the results for A and B between days 2 and 5.
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[4]
[Total 8 marks]

43.	Hedgerows and other semi-natural habitats can act as ‘wildlife corridors’ in the fragmented landscape of arable farmland. Hedgerows also provide refuges for beneficial invertebrates including natural predators of pest species.
	Suggest what is meant by the term ‘wildlife corridor’.
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[Total 2 marks]

44.	The use of natural predators is a form of biological pest control. Some farmers rely only on biological pest control.
	Describe two disadvantages of biological pest control.
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[Total: 2 marks]

45.	Suggest two advantages, other than predation of pests, of maintaining invertebrate populations in arable land.
1 ...............................................................................................................................
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2 ...............................................................................................................................
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[Total: 2 marks]

46.	Farmers who only use biological pest control on their crops can often market their produce as organic. Describe three advantages of organic farming.
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[Total: 3 marks]

47.	In the wild, rabbits have a high reproductive rate. However the population size remains fairly stable.
	Explain how this stability is maintained and how the gene pool of the rabbit population may be affected.
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[Total 5 marks]

48.	Tigers prey mainly upon large mammals. One of the threats to the survival of the tiger is a reduction in numbers of prey. The figure below shows the relationship between the numbers of two cat species, A and B, and the prey biomass.

	Use the figure to determine the number of (i) leopards and (ii) tigers per 100 km2 that can be expected to be supported by a biomass of 300 000 kg of prey per 100 km2.
(i)	leopards ………………………… per 100 km2
(ii)	tigers …………………………….. per 100 km2
[Total 2 marks]

49.	In 1971, an international treaty was signed to protect over 1800 wetland sites. Known as the Convention on Wetlands, it was designed to provide a framework for dynamic conservation of the wetlands and their resources which are diverse and complex habitats.
	Explain what is meant by dynamic conservation.
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[Total 2 marks]

50.	Lemmings are small mammals that live near the Arctic circle. Their populations show regular patterns of increase and decrease. In 2003, scientists published results based on a long-term project in East Greenland. They made the following observations.
•	Population peaks occurred in regular four year cycles.
•	Four main predators feed on the lemmings: Arctic owls, Arctic foxes, long-tailed skuas and stoats.
•	Stoats feed only on lemmings; the other predators feed on a range of prey species.
•	Stoats reproduce more slowly than lemmings.
 
(a)	The figure below shows the changes in the population of lemmings in the East Greenland project area from 1990 to 2002.

(i)	Sketch on the figure the likely changes in the population size of stoats.
[2]
 
(ii)	Suggest three environmental conditions, other than climatic, that are required for a population explosion of lemmings.
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[3]

(b)	With reference to the species studied in the East Greenland project, distinguish between interspecific and intraspecific competition.
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(c)	The carrying capacities for lemmings and for the various predators in this area are all different.
	Explain the term carrying capacity.
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[2]
[Total 10 marks]

51.	Some manufacturers of paper and timber products claim that their raw materials come from ‘sustainable forest resources’.
	With reference to paper and timber production, explain what is meant by
(i)	a biological resource;
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[2]
 
(ii)	sustainable production.
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[2]
[Total 4 marks]

52.	The cyclamen mite is a pest of strawberry crops in California. Populations of these mites are usually kept under control by a species of predatory mite of the genus Typhlodromus .
	An experiment was carried out to investigate the effectiveness of predation in controlling cyclamen mites.
	Both predator and prey mites were released on a group of strawberry plants in a greenhouse and the numbers of both types of mite were monitored over a period of 12 months. The results are summarised in Fig. 1. A second investigation was carried out on a crop of strawberry plants growing in a field. The plants were sprayed periodically with parathion, an insecticide that reduces the number of predators, but does not affect the cyclamen mite. The effects of this on the numbers of cyclamen mites is summarised in Fig. 2.

		Fig. 1

		Fig. 2
 
(a)	The results shown in Fig. 1 illustrate many of the features of a typical predator-prey relationship.
	Describe and explain these typical features.
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[4]
 
(b)	(i)	Sketch a curve on Fig. 2 to show the likely effect of spraying on the population of the predatory mite.
[2]
(ii)	Suggest two reasons for the gradual decrease in the numbers of cyclamen mites over the year, as shown in Fig. 2.
1 .............................................................................................................
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[2]
 
(c)	Many Californian strawberry growers keep the cyclamen mite under control by ensuring that there are healthy populations of the Typhlodromus mite.
(i)	State the name given to this type of pest control.
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[1]
 
(ii)	Explain why many would regard the use of predatory mites as preferable to the application of insecticides.
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[5]
 
(d)	Suggest two methods of pest control other than the use of predatory mites or insecticides.
1 ......................................................................................................................
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[2]
[Total 16 marks]

53.	The climax vegetation in tropical areas with abundant rainfall is rainforest. Although rainforests now cover less then 4% of the land surface of the Earth, they account for more than 20% of the planet’s net carbon fixation. By comparison, temperate forests are about half as productive (per unit area), while boreal forests (forests of northern latitudes) and grasslands are only a quarter as productive.
	A 13 km2 rainforest preserve in Costa Rica has 450 species of trees, more than 1000 other plant species, 400 species of birds, 58 species of bats and 130 species of amphibians and reptiles.

	The figure below shows a diagram of a typical area of tropical rainforest.

(a)	List three reasons why tropical rainforests have been destroyed, so that they now cover only 4% of the land surface of the Earth.
1 ......................................................................................................................
2 ......................................................................................................................
3 ......................................................................................................................
[3]
 
(b)	In this question, one mark is available for the quality of use and organisation of scientific terms.
	Making use of the information in the passage and the figure, describe the important features of tropical rainforests and explain why their disappearance is a cause of considerable concern.
(Allow one line page)
[8]
Quality of Written Communication [1]

(c)	Outline the international measures that can be taken to try and halt the decline of the tropical rainforests.
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[3]
[Total 15 marks]